Sports coaching today means more than running laps and doing push-ups; the ‘grunt’ is certainly still an integral part of training for any sports event, however, so too is the scientific reasoning behind the practical methods used. This is evident when glancing the contents of coaching manuals; most will have chapters on the physiology and biomechanics of the athlete before even a mention is made of practical skills. Certainly it is not uncommon for retired athletes, possibly having no solid scientific background, to take up a coaching role, however they are likely to be just one member of a group of coaches involved with that team or athlete. Other coaches in this team’s, or athlete’s, arsenal help to arm the training regime with scientific principles to gain the edge over the opponent. However, this mating of science with coaching is not new to this decade, century or even millennium, some trace this scientific approach to coaching back to 3rd century AD (Simri, 1979), while others date it as far back as 4th century BC (Semotiuk, 1981). Let us take a look now at the progression of the science of coaching.

Ancient Greece - The Development of the Coach
The first account of a coach comes from the poetry of Homer, in which Nestor gives advice to his son Antilochus before a chariot race. Antilochus was neither the most talented nor did he have the best horses. Consequently, his father advised him on tactics which he hoped would give Antilochus the edge he needed. These tactics led to a controversial finish, such that Antilochus was accused of using unfair means, as a result he was relegated to second place. Nestor had provided his son with technical advice, and motivational techniques, stressing craft and cunning over physical ability (Semotiuk, 1981). This account is reportedly from around 10th century BC.

Around the 4th - 6th centuries BC, coaches had developed somewhat, and now also instructed the athletes in their command, on diet as well as physical training. It has been noted that these coaches must have been former athletes themselves, thereby giving them the expertise and knowledge with which to instruct their charges, a practice similar to coaches of our own era (Semotiuk, 1981).

Education of the Grecian Coach
When it was noticed that generations of families would consistently perform well in given contests, for example Diagoras, his 3 sons and 2 grandsons, who between them won 9 Olympic crowns in boxing and pankration (a mix of boxing and wrestling), coaches of Olympic athletes were made to study, heredity. Further, coaches were instructed by physicians in the area of health sciences. However, the instruction of the coaches by trained physicians caused a rift between the two groups. This is evident in writings from the period in which the physicians verbally attack the coaches. One example includes an accusation by Philostratus that coaches were unable to differentiate between training men and training boys. It is also possible to trace sports psychology back to the playing fields of ancient Greece, Promachus of Pellene was somewhat intimidated by his opponent’s reputation in the pankration final of 404 BC, Promachus’ coach whispered an imaginary message from his lover into his ear which inspired Promachus to victory.

Evidence could continue to be presented which shows the scientific foundations of coaching in Ancient Greece. For example, the Tetrad Cycle, a four day training cycle not unlike that which is used today; an athlete classification system, which has vast similarities to Sheldon’s somatotyping; and even a talent identification scheme. But what of Modern Day?

Institutes and Academies of Sport
Here in our own country, the Australian Institute of Sport has the sole purpose of advancing the achievements of it’s athletes, further, each state has it’s own institute or academy of sport. These establishments have on staff, not only the coaches for the represented sports and events, but also ‘scientific officers’ whose job it is to interact with the athletes and coaches and provide scientific advice which will improve the performance of the coach’s athletes. What is interesting is that this practice began in Eastern Block countries long before Australia and even the US considered such schemes.

Every leap year when the Olympics roll around, it used to be that the US would top the medal tally. But in 1976, the Montreal Olympics saw the USSR and East Germans outperforming the Americans. The difference between the teams was their preparation and the coaches and scientists backing them. These Eastern Block countries had established training facilities in which persons who might be genetically predisposed to athletic greatness were sought. The training programs were then scientifically optimised and techniques were analysed and refined so as to tweak the athletes for competition. In recognition of the usefulness of such facilities the US now have Olympic Training Centres, just as we have our own AIS.

Significant Contributions
Biomechanics:
Much of the action in sports occurs at high speeds, making it difficult to analyse with the naked eye. With the advent of computer technology and high-speed videoing techniques, scientists have been able to capture, and hence quantify athletic performance, thereby allowing them to refine technique and improve outcome. Ariel (1979) provides us with some specific examples of performance enhancement as a result of scientific, in particular biomechanical, analysis.

Long Distance Running:
Typically thought of as a purely cardio-vascular event, biomechanical research has provided some interesting insights. It has been suggested that increasing the stride length, the resulting decreased stride rate, would reduce cardio-vascular demands placed on the runner. However, biomechanical research has shown that a reaction force opposing the motion of the athlete increases proportionately with stride length. As a result it was noted that athletes have their own optimal stride length at which this reaction force is a minimum.

Weightlifting:
The technique that led Eastern Block weightlifters to prowess came about from these lifters positioning themselves under the weight at a lower point than their US counterparts. From video analysis, it was realised that by the time the US athletes were under the weight, the bar had already begun downward acceleration, consequently, US weightlifters were having to over come inertial forces as well as the weight of the bar. Further, it was found that European lifters allowed the weight of the bar to follow their own centre of gravity, resulting in increased efficiency while lifting the weight.

Physiology:
It is Mader’s (1979) opinion, that elite sport is ‘...one of the only existing possibilities...’ for scientists to investigate ‘...biological functions and processes at the extremes of human performance...’. Once again technological advances have allowed exercise physiologists to record and analyse data more conveniently than in decades past. For example, blood pH levels, lactic acid levels, and other enzymes and proteins can be easily monitored from a small blood sample from the ear lobe or fingertip. Using these techniques, and others, coaches can be provided with important information regarding their athlete’s current level and maybe even potential ability. Mader (1979) highlights the following contributions to the science of coaching.

Aerobic-Anaerobic Threshold:
Back in the early 1970’s researchers such as Whipp and Wassermann (1973) identified a transition stage between steady-state and non-steady-state exercise where energy is derived from lactic acid formation. This was an important finding as it became evident that when training took place ‘...within or under the aerobic-anaerobic threshold...’ rapid improvement in endurance could be achieved. Further, it meant that when training under this threshold athletes could train for longer periods as a consequence of being able to use the lactic acid produced as opposed to succumbing to it, as was the usual case.

Evaluation of Over-Training:
Meerson presented research in 1969 that suggested links to degradation of cell structure and function and overtraining. Haralambie (1966, 1973) also presents research that offers pertinent information to this area, highlighting links between physiological markers and overtraining. An increase in urea values, a substance that is associated with protein degeneration, was shown to closely correlate with athletes who exhibit symptoms of over-training and decrement in performance. With this research, coaches are able to better identify over-trained athletes and alter their training accordingly. The long term benefit of this is prolongation of the athletes sporting career, by allowing their body to recover before resuming the heavy workload that elite athletes must undergo to excel.

Conclusion
Hopefully, this paper has offered an insight to the role of science in coaching. From a historical perspective we can see that the role of science in coaching has always been recognised, though sometimes more successfully by others. Further, direct examples show that scientific studies have led to great leaps of improvement in sporting achievements. What remains to be seen now is how far science can take the athlete. Do physical limits exist which govern how fast a man can run or jump? Or is it possible to keep improving? Wait and see!

References

Semotiuk, D. (1981) Human Energy in Sport Coaching: Historical Perspective’s from Ancient Greece, In Energy and Equity: The Sports Sciences - Proceedings of the 51^st ANZAAS Congress, I.F. Jobling and B.D. Wilson (Eds.)

Simri, U. (1979) On Coaching and the Coaching Profession in Ancient Greece, In The Art and Science of Coaching - Proceedings of an International Seminar, U. Simri (Ed.)

Mader, A. (1979) The Contribution of Physiology to the Science of Coaching, In The Art and Science of Coaching - Proceedings of an International Seminar, U. Simri (Ed.)

Ariel, G. (1979) The Contribution of Biomechanics to the Art of Coaching, In The Art and Science of Coaching - Proceedings of an International Seminar, U. Simri (Ed.)

Tim Doyle is a Postgraduate student in Biomechanics the Department of Human Movement Studies at the University of Queensland.

Coaching to improve athletes' performance and satisfaction
By Hamish C Millard, Stephanie J Hanrahan, Susan A Jackson

Is it really a case of performance versus satisfaction?
Traditionally, performance and satisfaction have been placed at two ends of a continuum. A coach at the extreme performance end of the continuum might say to her/his athletes "Go out there and do your best, and don't you dare come back with anything less than a gold medal." A coach at the extreme satisfaction end of the continuum might say to his/her athletes "just go out there and enjoy yourself - don't worry about the scoreboard."

Coaches working at either extreme have been thought to be problematic. The extreme performance coach would produce athletes that represent their state or country and then burn-out and retire before they hit puberty. Conversely, the extreme satisfaction coach would be there at the end of the season to collect the wooden spoon.

Part of research the first author completed into coaching effectiveness asked athletes to identify ideal coaching characteristics relevant to improving athlete performance and satisfaction. This article discusses one of the findings of this research. Instead of performance and satisfaction being at extremes to each other, athletes indicated that there is a significant area of overlap. We will detail some specific coaching traits and behaviours that athletes associated with improving both performance and satisfaction. In effect, there are numerous ways for a coach to kill two birds with one stone.

Who were these athletes and what did they do?
Athletes in the study were recruited from a variety of individual and team sports within Brisbane. Sports included in the sample were track and field (sprint, middle-distance, and jumps), swimming, hockey, soccer, basketball, and synchronised ice-skating. A total of 63 athletes participated in the study, from nine different training squads. All athletes were 16 years of age or older. The coaches of these athletes all held a minimum of level two accreditation.

All participants completed a questionnaire. Open-ended questions asked athletes to describe the traits and behaviours that a coach should ideally have to improve an athlete's performance or satisfaction. Performance was defined as "the athlete's display of strength, endurance, technique, ability, and/or dedication during both training and competition." Satisfaction was defined as "the degree of enjoyment, contentment, and good feelings that an athlete has towards his/her experiences in training and competition."

What did these athletes say?
The general observation was that good performances result in increased satisfaction. Less common was the observation that high satisfaction results in improved performance.

"In the past I have obtained the highest satisfaction from achieving personal bests and good performances. If the coach is doing things which influenced me to improve, then I would be satisfied."

"If an athlete is happy, he or she is likely to perform well as well. If an athlete performs well, she or he will be satisfied."

While these comments provide a good indication that some overall relationship between performance and satisfaction exists, they provide no information about the specific coaching characteristics involved. However, athletes did mention many specific coaching characteristics, of which a number were common to both performance and satisfaction.

A sense of humour
Athletes want a coach who can laugh. They see humour as playing an important part in breaking the monotony of training and helping raise the atmosphere when it would otherwise be down.

"I'd want a coach to have an affable character and a sense of humour so as to ensure that training wasn't thought of as a drag."

"Need a sense of humour to be able to put fun into the work"

Good communication skills
Athletes want a coach who can tell them precisely what to do, without labouring the point or going off on tangents.

"Needs to be able to communicate what he wants done and exactly how he wants it doneö

"Analyse and explain clearly all techniques/movements with coherence (not overdoing explanations with half-hour lecture or underdoing it)"

A positive attitude
Athletes want a "glass half full" coach, one who focuses on the positives in a situation. They want their coach to believe in their ability to achieve their goals. The coach's attitude towards an athlete is contagious. If a coach does not believe in an athlete, the athlete in turn will exhibit self-doubt. When a coach demonstrates belief in an athlete, that athlete's confidence will grow.

"They should be positive but also realistic - focus on what you are doing right as well as what can be improved"

"Believe in the athlete"

Friendly
Athletes want a coach who is easy to approach, as opposed to a coach who barks orders from the sideline and never talks to any of her/his athletes on a one-to-one basis. Athletes in the study suggested that ultimately, friendly coaches know more about their athletes and are more understanding of factors underlying athletes' performances.

"Should be easy to approach if you need to ask questions"

"A person who ultimately can relate to every one and give knowledgeable advice"

Help with goal setting
Athletes from both team and individual sports wanted a coach who takes the time to help each athlete develop goals and plans to improve their performance. The responses of athletes in the study suggest that helping with goal setting is a concrete way that coaches can gain better knowledge of each of their athletes and demonstrate that they care.

"Help you develop realistic goals and help to achieve those goals"

"Set achievable goals - including some that are not performance/result based"

Provide encouragement
Athletes want a coach who provides them with encouragement as they strive towards their goals. Athletes in the study suggested that encouragement from the coach was a powerful source of motivation.

"Continuous encouragement to push an athlete to their best performance"

"Encourage athletes individually so they don't feel lost in a team"

Provide positive feedback
Athletes want a coach who provides them with positive feedback when they achieve a goal or perform well. The athletes in the study indicated that positive feedback helped to motivate them.

"Congratulate athlete when goals are achieved"

"Give rewards and slightly easier training after a good performance"

What does it all mean?
A wide variety of coaching factors influence the quality of athletes' performances. Such factors include knowledge, experience, qualifications, and more importantly the ability to apply this expertise in their coaching. The responses of athletes in this article suggest that additional coaching factors influence athletes' performance by improving their satisfaction and motivation. These factors seem to be associated with the processes involved in imparting technical expertise.

Coaches should clearly specify the requirements for each activity. To test their clarity, coaches can finish by asking if there are any questions. If any athletes do have questions, instead of yelling at them for not listening, coaches should take a moment to think of how they could have explained things more clearly.

Coaches should encourage their athletes. A more positive atmosphere in training could be established by the occasional joke or encouragement as the athletes work towards the goal of the training activity. Positive feedback when athletes achieve their goal is also recommended. However, this positive atmosphere should be balanced with appropriate technical instruction and criticism where it is warranted.

Coaches should get to know their athletes. When new athletes join a squad this could mean a more formal one-on-one talk. With existing athletes this could just be the occasional chat prior to or after training. One possible way of improving this knowledge could be to sit down with individual athletes and look at their performance goals. This is a topic that coaches and athletes have in common and it provides a good place to start, proving that the coach is interested in the athlete. When athletes perceive their coach as someone who really helps them improve their performance, and as someone who is interested in them as people, they will be more likely to approach their coach when the need arises.

Coaches should believe in their athletes. Demonstrating to athletes that the coach believes they can achieve their goals is important for athletes' confidence. This reiterates the importance of helping athletes set their goals. Observations of their performances in training puts coaches in a good position to evaluate the realism of the goals they set. It is not difficult to believe in an athlete when their goals are realistic to begin with.

The Positive Outcome
The importance of technical instruction should not be under-rated. However, research with the athletes described in this article, as well as their coaches, suggest that there is more to good coaching than technical expertise

While some may argue that some athletes are just more motivated than others, the ideal coach has a role in enhancing her/his athletes' motivation. The athletes in this study identified that satisfaction and motivation are derived from good performances. They identified a number of additional factors that can improve the overall quality of the coaching experience by influencing both short-term performance and longer-term satisfaction and motivation.

Hamish Millard conducted this research as part of his thesis within the Master of Sport and Exercise Psychology program at The University of Queensland. His research was supervised by S. Hanrahan (UQ) and S. Jackson (now at QUT).

COACHING ATHLETES REQUIRES A BALANCED `SOLE'
By Jayne Arlett

Do you want your players to run faster, jump higher, last longer and perform better?
What coach doesn't? It sounds a bit like the 6 million-dollar man (or woman) but all of this can be achieved with your athletes with a bit of help from your podiatrist and medical team. Podiatry is a useful and necessary part of the sporting team and most serious (and even weekend) athletes have podiatry check ups these days. Being concerned with the biomechanics of the foot and leg, podiatrists will asses gait (walking and running patterns) and advise on areas with room for improvement.

Evolutionarily Speaking
Unfortunately many of us have not yet finished descending from the apes and our feet are sometimes more suited to tree climbing than walking or running on flat surfaces. A poorly formed heel called rear foot varus is relatively common amongst our population and this foot has to rotate or pronate excessively in order to reach the ground. Like the song "the foot bone's connected to the leg bone...." this sets up a chain reaction that causes the foot to become unstable, the leg to internally rotate, the pelvis to tilt and the upper and lower back to compensate for this!

Enhancing Performance - Legally
For the coach desiring good performance, one of the most concerning effects of excess pronation is the destabilization of the foot. A "normal" foot will be in slight supination on toe off, this causes the foot to lock and become rigid. The body uses the foot as a rigid lever to push off and propel in to the next step. Having a pronated foot type often means the foot is unstable or unlocked at toe off, so trying to push off is like trying to push a door closed with a stick of licorice - it buckles and collapses under the pressure. For the athlete this leads to poor strength on propulsion and lack of stability and control.

Fortunately this is relatively easily controlled with prescription orthotics. The foot is casted in the more normal position and an orthotic device is constructed to hold the foot correctly during gait. Pronation is of course a normal movement and necessary for gait, but the excesses of movement can be reduced. A pronated foot once controlled in an appropriate orthotic, will function better, certainly allowing more strength on toe off which is particularly beneficial during basketball and other jumping sports; athletes have been shown to jump higher in prescription orthotic devices.

Injury prevention and treatment
70% of all sporting injuries occur to the foot and leg. Low-grade injuries may mean the athlete is more focused on their aches and pains than the game, more severe injuries will sideline the player. Many injuries are related to foot function. The destabilization that occurs with pronation produces increased strain on the muscles, ligaments and joints of the foot and leg. Common injuries include plantar fasciitis or heel spur syndrome, ankle pain, shin splints, anterior knee pain and low back pain. Prevention is always better than a cure and perhaps more so with athletes who can't afford `down time' At coaches' request, podiatrists are increasingly involved with pre-season screenings to identify biomechanical disorders that may predispose an athlete to injury. Correction or control of these factors in the preseason can dramatically reduce the rate of injury during the season.

The demands upon athletes, particularly at professional or elite level, to return to competition following injury is great and the results that can be achieved when the athlete, coach and medical teams pull together are astounding. There was a well-publicized example when following ankle and knee surgery, (then) Captain of the Crocodiles Derek Rucker made a surprise return to the court in just two weeks. His rehabilitation was exhausting for him and the medical staff; he was seeing myself daily for adjustments and modification to his orthotics. He was having physiotherapy up to three times a day as well as reviews by his doctor and surgeon who co-ordinated the entire process.

Another import needed knee surgery for bony spurring that was causing significant pain. We were however, only half way throughout the season and could not afford to release him for a few months. His existing prescription orthotics were adjusted to manipulate the knee and put pressure on to a non-injured part of his knee. This managed to reduce his pain by 70% allowing him to finish the season then have (successful) surgery in the off season.

Shoe Sense
Shoes are an important part of the athlete's equipment and must be selected with care. What works for one person may in fact be disastrous for another. Footwear companies sponsor some teams and the athlete may be forced to wear a shoe that does not meet his or her needs. There are many cases of injury caused solely through use of inappropriate footwear, Coaches may liase with the team podiatrist to ensure their athletes obtain a shoe that will enhance rather that hinder their performance.

In Summary
A good coach will look for all ways to improve the performance of the team and individual athlete. Too often we see key players out for significant parts of the season with an injury that could have been avoided with podiatric screening and appropriate intervention. Player's performance can be enhanced at times and injuries can be treated or avoided by podiatric assessment.

Coaches, who want to get the best from their athletic team, recognize they need a background team of podiatrists, doctors, physiotherapists and dietitians. Use these members of your support team; find out what they can do for you and your athletes. Best of luck for the season!

Jayne Arlett is executive member of the SMA State board Queensland and President of the Townsville Sub Branch. She is a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Podiatric Sports Medicine and has studied in Australia, England and America. She works closely with coaches and medical staff; her team experience includes present team podiatrist to the North Queensland Cowboys (NRL) and Townsville Crocodiles (NBL). She has worked with the Chicago Bulls (NBA), Bears (NFL) and White Sox (NBL) in America.

SUPPLEMENTING COACHING OUTCOMES
By Michelle Cort

Nutrition now takes its rightful place in the training and competition phases of many athletes lives. The importance of appropriate nutrition and the effect it has on performance is widely accepted. Just as a coach tailors a program specifically for an athlete, so too must their diet be individualized to ensure maximum athletic performance. Coaching decisions such as the length, intensity and timing of training sessions, frequency of competition and the choice of positions or roles for an athlete in team sports can all impact on the nutritional advice provided.

The individual diet plan will vary greatly from athlete to athlete. The plan can also vary for an individual athlete from day to day or season to season. This is dependent on such things as the type and intensity of exercise, age, sex, body composition and lifestyle.

TRAINING:
Nutrition advice and goals need to be targeted towards the specific needs of athletes and their training programs. An insight into the athletes training and competition schedules, goals and lifestyle must be established.

In sports such as running, triathlon, and rowing, for example, a coach may construct a training program that can extend to hours of fairly continuous activity. Athletes often find it difficult to achieve the very high energy intakes necessary to sustain this hard training on a daily basis, and may need advice on dietary strategies to achieve this. Frequent meals and snacks, use of compact, low fibre foods and inclusion of high energy drinks and supplements could be required. Without adequate energy from these means the athletes training and subsequent performance in competition will be sub-optimal despite the coaches best efforts to construct an appropriate training program.

For strenuous endurance activities training can be further enhanced by the timing and type of food consumed before exercise. Low glycaemic index carbohydrate foods a couple of hours before activity are best as they can increase endurance and prolong the time before exhaustion hits.

Other sports may require a number of daily training sessions or intermittent activity. If a coach chooses to conduct more than one training session a day or several intense sessions during a week, recovery nutrition becomes crucial to the athletes performance. After hard exercise recovery of muscle glycogen is a relatively slow process and normally takes approximately 24 hours. To accelerate the recovery of glycogen stores the athlete should be educated on appropriate recovery strategies. They should begin to consume high glycaemic index carbohydrate as soon as possible after exercise, and replace fluids. This will help enable him or her to train and perform optimally in consecutive exercise sessions.

Regular monitoring of an athletes diet is ideal as it allows for alterations to be made due to changes in the length, intensity or timing of training sessions. This ensures that the diet plan continues to provide basic nutritional requirements that allow for optimal return from training, recovery between sessions and physiological adaptation.

COMPETITION:
A good training diet means little change pre-competition, and consequently little disruption to the usual routine. Not only does this approach benefit the athlete physically, but also provides psychological benefits. The athlete knows they have prepared correctly, that it works for them in training, and they can then concentrate on other areas of their performance.

The process of coaches reducing the training load of athletes in the last few days before competition to increase energy levels is further enhanced by the athlete increasing the carbohydrate content of their diet at this time. This aims to ensure the athlete arrives at the starting line with as much glycogen as possible stored in the muscle and liver.

It is important to recognize an athletes individual likes and dislikes prior to competition, and determine the time and location where the meal is consumed, as practical issues such as food availability and travel may affect these. A coach may decide that certain athletes or teams need to travel to gain competitive experience. To ensure maximum benefit is gained from this experience food and fluid availability should be organised before leaving, keeping the plan as similar as possible to their regular pre comp/training eating pattern. This may involve requesting special meals on airlines or hotels or checking cooking facilities in hostels.

Eating and drinking between events is necessary if there are several per day. If only short breaks are available sports drinks, cordial or juice are useful. For longer breaks light meals such as sandwiches, fruit or liquid meals are generally better tolerated.

BODY COMPOSITION:
An athletes body composition can greatly affect his/her performance or role in a sport. Changes to their body composition may be necessary to ensure performance gains, or continued participation within a team or individual sport. In such cases it is desirable to have a close working relationship with coaches, so that goals and expectations for individual athletes or teams can be discussed.

In Australian Rules Football, for example, a player may play in the full forward position where little running is required and extra bulk may not be undesirable. However, if the coach then decides he wants the option of using the player further down the field where more running is necessary the player may have to lose extra body fat to help with his running ability. The dietitian would alter his eating plan to aid in decreased body fat while still providing sufficient energy to maintain the training load.

Decreases in body fat may also be necessary in athletes returning from injury or a break from sport where inactivity has led to body fat gain. Achieving fat loss via an appropriate eating plan and exercise may result in an athlete being able to compete earlier than if an appropriate diet plan was not adhered to. Losses in body fat may also be required in endurance sport or power sport athletes where low body fat levels and an increased power to weight ratio is a physical advantage to performance, eg: distance running, gymnastics, cycling.

Athletes competing in a sport where leanness and low body fat levels are of aesthetic advantage, eg: gymnastics, ballet also benefit from appropriate dietary instruction. Competitive advantage in these sports may also be enhanced by using a liquid meal prior to competition rather than a solid meal, as it tends to create less abdominal protrusion.

Talented, young players may have the skills necessary to perform in certain sports but may require changes in body composition before coaches can fully utlise them or before their potential is realised. Increases in muscle mass for example can increase the power to weight ratio giving an athlete greater strength and force. This is an advantage to athletes participating in sports such as rowing, javelin, shot put, and weight lifting.

"Bulking up" is also desirable for many young football players as it improves their strength and momentum in contact sports. A coach may only feel confident in selecting them for certain positions once this is achieved. A specifically designed meal plan with adequate energy and protein would be created for the individual.

In weight category sports, eg: rowing, wrestling or boxing, athletes are encouraged to be the heaviest they can be within the particular division. Many therefore, train at a body weight higher than the weight limit and strive for sudden weight loss just before weigh in time. This is usually achieved by dehydration techniques (fluid restriction, sweating, diuretics). Food restriction in the days leading up to the event may also cause loss of weight through inadequate glycogen stores and loss of body protein. Weigh in is usually held close to the event leaving insufficient time for rehydration and refueling.

The practice of trying to achieve last minute weight loss just before competition puts the athlete at a disadvantage for endurance, performance and future weight problems. The dietitian may need to influence coaches to select athletes already within the class. Ideally they should be within the appropriate weight range, based on suitable body fat levels, for some time before competition. This helps ensure maximum glycogen storage and adequate hydration which can provide a competitive advantage.

TEAMWORK
It is ideal, wherever possible, to have a close working relationship with coaches. This helps to ensure that common goals are being strived for, and that consistent nutritional messages are being provided to the athlete. Having regular meetings with coaching staff provides an opportunity to discuss issues relating to an individual athletes nutritional status, eg: need to decrease body fat or increase muscle mass, changes in training intensity or length, compliance levels etc. Meal and snack arrangements and requirements for travelling athletes can also be discussed.

The impact that adherence to the appropriate eating plan will have on the athletes health and performance also needs to be made known to the coach. Having a coach that is positive and supportive of appropriate nutrition practices impacts positively on the athletes compliance, and consequently their performance.

Michelle Cort is a Sports Dietitian in private practice in Brisbane and works for the Brisbane Lions AFL team and the Brisbane Bullets Basketball team.

A PRESCRIPTION FOR ENHANCING COACHING OUTCOMES:
By Dr Margaret Smyth

Times have changed from the days when the coach was the lone support person for the team. He or she is now inundated with people who feel they have a right to advise the coach on their area of expertise. Often the coach is unaware of the advantages of these people and is sometimes unaware of the qualifications of those they choose to advise them. The essential ingredient for the doctor would be good listening and communication skills.

WHY DOES THE COACH NEED THE SUPPORT OF THE MEDICAL TEAM?
The obvious answer is to treat injuries. However, if the doctor only sees the player after an injury it is often very difficult to know if this is an acute injury or an exacerbation of a chronic injury, which the player had before the start of the season. For this reason the pre-season medical is paramount. This allows us to see minor abnormalities, chronic injuries, muscle imbalances and inflexibility. The doctor can then work with the coach and the athlete to solve these problems and ultimately improve performance and decrease the injury rate during the season.

The involvement of the doctor varies with the amount of support received from the paramedical team. In the ideal situation the doctor is a qualified sports physician (not all teams are privileged to use one of the 99 in Australia), who is ably supported by a physiotherapist, podiatrist, dietitian, sports psychologist and the sports scientist. However, the usual situation is that the doctor is called upon to provide many of the services, as the team does not have the resources to employ all these specialists. In fact, when I was appointed to the Australian Women's Rugby team I was the only member of the medical team and it was suggested that when I had treated all the injuries and strapped all the ankles, I could run the water! By actively lobbying with the coach, I was able to organise the appointment of a physiotherapist.

The coach often needs to be educated in the importance of treating injuries early and allowing athletes to take time out to allow injuries to fully heal. This does not mean following the guidelines of injury healing religiously, but using commonsense combined with medical knowledge. For instance, an athlete who has a stress fracture of the tibia, may be advised not to train for six weeks but if the event of their lives is to take place in five weeks and then they are giving up the sport, a shorter period of rest followed by a long break would be more appropriate. Of course the athlete should not be allowed to return too early as this may exacerbate the injury or lead to complications.

The doctor is also in the position to educate the coach on the conditions such as diabetes, asthma, kidney disease and high blood pressure and how these diseases will impact on the athlete's ability to perform their sport.

Many coaches of women's teams are unfamiliar with the special needs of the female athlete and often they have little knowledge of the complications exercising can have on the unborn child. The doctor is in the position to educate the coach on exercising during pregnancy, PMT, amenorrhoea (cessation of the regular menstrual cycle), anorexia and osteoporosis.

Another issue is the special requirements of coaching children. It is important to remember that the child is not a miniature adult and that sport should be fun! The sports physician may be called upon to give advice on when to begin strength training, how much aerobic and anaerobic training is appropriate and how to train developing musculature.

The coach will need advice on the drugs banned by the IOC and also the side effects of any medication the athlete is taking.

WHY DOES THE DOCTOR NEED THE COACH?
It would be very simple if all the patients walked into the surgery between 9 and 5 on Monday to Friday and could fully explain the mechanism of injury and in five minutes give a complete run down on the requirements of their sport, the training programme and the plans for the team for the rest of the season.

However the doctor needs to liase closely with the coach to find answers to questions such as: When will the player be required to compete again? When are selection trials? Can the player be moved to another position where they will not need to run as much? How long will it take to regain the skills lost during a six-week injury?

The doctor needs to know the skill level of the athlete to determine the impact an injury will have of their life. The athlete is sometimes not the best judge of this but the coach who trains many similar sportspeople, may be able to assist. Many athletes aim for the Olympics but few actually achieve their goal. The coach is often able to discuss the future prospects of the athlete so that the doctor can treat appropriately. For example the doctor may decide to return an injured athlete to training earlier to make a Commonwealth games team, after finding out that this athlete does not have the ability to make an Olympic team. In fact this may be the highlight of the athlete's career. Conversely, the doctor may decide to keep the athlete away from training after the coach has pointed out their potential thus preventing re-injury in a minor competition.

THE DOCTOR IS NOT THE COACH.
Whilst it may be necessary to restrict certain activity, it should be remembered that only the coach is fully aware of the skills his or her team requires. Obviously the doctor will not tell a basketball player not to jump but it is equally important that he does not stop aerobic training in a football player who not only depends on short sprints but also has to last a full 80 minutes. After close discussion with the coach it may be necessary to withdraw this player from the team or investigate cross training options such as cycling, swimming or rowing.

Both the doctor and the coach have a duty of care to the athlete and the injured individual must always be considered above the team!

CONCLUSION
Communication between coach and doctor will undoubtedly improve the outcome for the athlete. However, I often hear complaints about the coach not listening. I feel this is because until recently the coach did not have all these "hangers-on". Sport in Australia survived for many decades before the advent of the medical team and the doctor needs to win the trust of the coach before he or she will accept this change. We need to increase our involvement in the coaching courses and to spend more time with individual coaches.

Dr Margaret Smyth is a Sports Physician working in private practice in Brisbane.

Shooting For Gold! 
Mentally preparing the athlete for competition
By Clifford Mallett

The major championship or peak competition is the time to really enjoy the fruits of labour. The culmination of the preparation of all aspects of performance (physical and psychological) reach a crescendo. The peak competition is the time to test the skills that have developed over the past few months and even years. It is the opportunity to enjoy the exhilaration of competing against other athletes of similar ability in fantastic stadiums - environments aspiring athletes have dreamed about for so long. Savour the moment! The challenge is to test skills in controlling personal thoughts and performing the physical skills with fluency and the appropriate speed of execution.

Any comment on fine tuning an athlete for competition should be prefaced by a statement about the utility of an integrated and comprehensive approach to the preparation of an athlete for competition. Unfortunately, too often the development of appropriate mental skills for competition is perceived as an `add on' just prior to or during the competitive phase. In some cases, coaches and athletes talk about doing something about mental skills training, but never quite get around to addressing the problem until the last minute. How many athletes do you know who have failed to make the grade when it counts (during the peak competition) because they have not prepared this aspect of performance? Mental skills training should be an important component of an overall package of skills preparing the athlete for optimal performance in the highest level of competition.

Much of the work in the area of mental skills training necessitates early preparation of relevant skills. That is, mental skills need to be learned well in advance of the competition phase. Last minute preparation is of little utility in the cauldron of Olympic level competition. Under the pressure of competition, athletes default back to their dominant behaviours.

The basis of this preparation should first consider a needs-based assessment of the athlete. It should involve an understanding of what skills the athlete has and what skills require development to achieve the final product. The strategic approach to developing these skills should commence in the early general preparation phase, along with the development of physical skills. These skills should be prioritized, and logically sequenced according to the individual needs of the athlete.

In terms of behaviour modification, a case management approach is essential to ensure the specific needs of the athlete are addressed. The following steps are recommended:

Where are the goal posts?

* What appropriate behaviours are required? What behaviours are to be avoided?

This can be achieved by involving the athlete, coach and other valuable resources (e.g., sport psychologist, physiotherapist). Athletes need to understand why they need to learn problem solving strategies and the importance of taking responsibility for their own behaviours, and how this can enhance not only performance but the enjoyment of the athletic experience "understanding breeds compliance".

Shaping behaviours:

* The development of a strategic approach to `shaping' the appropriate behaviours and extinguishing the inappropriate behaviours.

What strategies can be employed by coaches and other ancillary staff associated with the athlete to reinforce the desired behaviours? It is preferable a team approach is employed so that all `team members' are consistently working toward `shaping' the appropriate behaviours. Importantly, the appropriate behaviours should be reinforced by all personnel.

It is strongly recommended that athletes be empowered with the skills to effectively problem-solve and in doing so take personal responsibility for their own behaviours. Successful athletes accept the challenge of adversity and work to overcome obstacles to achieve their success. If this is not part of the repertoire of skills an athlete possesses, the good news is that it can be learned.

In terms of developing a strategic plan, some important considerations are suggested:

* A structured program aimed at developing specific behaviours (including controlling anxiety, positive self-talk and other self-regulatory skills) should be implemented throughout the preparation and competitive phases. Athletes need to be taught how to effectively interpret and evaluate a performance and this evaluation should be an ongoing process through the sporting career.

* The focus should be on the process. Every person has a little `chat room' going on inside their head between two selves. Our positive self says nice things to us (i.e., provides us with `warm fuzzies'). The other self tells us negative things, such as, "I hope I don't come last and make a fool of myself" (i.e., gives us `cold prickles'). The critical focus is to ensure the positive self is dominant and we listen more to what he/she tells us. The challenge is to get the positive self inside the head of the performer to be dominant.

* Implementation of selected strategies into gradually more stressful situations, commencing with sessions outside of training if necessary, then training sessions early in the preparation phase, followed by simulated competitions as the competitive season approaches, then less important competitions, and finally in high level competitions. Theoretically, this process may take only one season, however, it is more likely that this process will take most athletes several years to perfect. It is an evolutionary process, as it takes time to change dominant thought patterns.

Evaluation

* Formative (regular) and summative (conclusion of the season) evaluation of the progress made toward achieving the preferred behaviours and the strategies employed is essential.

During the peak competition athletes will generally exhibit their dominant behaviours and this is the time to critically reflect on the behavioural changes that have taken place as a consequence of the preparation. Observation of the athlete in the training and competitive environments provides useful information about the progress the athlete has made in terms of appropriate behaviours. As part of the evolutionary process, the feedback and reinforcement of appropriate behaviours is critical to the steepness of the learning curve. Hence, the coach and ancillary staff are significant players in the athlete's learning.

As the season commences and progresses, it is not uncommon for the behaviour of athletes to reflect their level of self-efficacy. The manifestation of `tensions' becomes more apparent as the season progresses. Adverse changes in behaviour necessitate ongoing critical evaluation of the strategic approach taken, so that refinements can be made throughout the season. It is better to progressively refine strategies used to shape appropriate behaviours rather than wait until the end of the season to evaluate the strategies used.

At the completion of the season, the time taken to evaluate the progress made is an important part of the evolutionary process. The investment of time here will pay big dividends later.

The role of the coach in the development of appropriate behaviours to enhance sporting performance cannot be emphasised enough. Appropriate behaviours must be modelled by coaches in the presence of their athletes. Rhetoric must match behaviour (the behaviour and rhetoric of the coach must be consistent). Too often the coach becomes very nervous and this transfers readily to the athlete. In some individual sports, it is not uncommon for athletes to ask for their coaches to stay away from them during the major competition, because they make them too anxious. The coach is a significant influence on athlete behaviour, and it is important for the coach to learn similar coping strategies as the athlete.

Process versus outcome:

Often we hear coaches talk about the process, but their feedback and behaviour during and post competition do not always reflect the rhetoric. Perhaps the words of the Chinese Sage, Tram Su are pertinent: Focus on the process - not the prize!

When the archer shoots for nothing, he has all the skill. When he shoots for a brass buckle, he is already nervous. When he shoots for a prize of gold, he goes blind, and sees two targets. He is out of his mind. His skills have not changed. But the prize divides him. He cares. He thinks more of winning than shooting, and the need to win drains him of his power.

Concluding comment:

The effectiveness of fine tuning an athlete is totally contingent on the quality of the intervention program and its integration into the overall training program. Mental skills training should not be seen as an extra, but rather as an essential component of the package of skills required by the athlete to perform his/her best in the cauldron of Olympic competition. Mental preparation can only be effective if all "team members" are active participants.

Cliff Mallett is a former National High Performance Coach for Sprints & Relays and Olympic Track & Field Coach 1996. He is a lecturer in Sport & Exercise Psychology at The University of Queensland, St Lucia.

Coaching Behaviours and Athlete Competition Anxiety
By Joseph Baker

The relationship between athlete anxiety and negative sporting outcomes is strongly established. Smith and Smoll (1990) indicated that predisposition to injury, dropout, enjoyment, performance, interactions with team-mates, coaches, and officials are all areas of sport influenced by different forms of anxiety. Anxiety during competition can be manifested in many forms such as increased heart rate or feelings of apprehension and nervousness. While the maxim "it is all in your head" certainly applies to anxiety, there are many external factors that contribute to anxiety manifestations during competition. One element of significant influence is the coach and the behaviours he or she demonstrates.

Baker, Cote and Hawes (1999) recently completed a study of 228 Canadian athletes from 15 different sports that examined the relationships among specific coaching behaviours and forms of competition anxiety in athletes. Subjects completed the Coaching Behaviour Scale for Sport (CBS-S; Cote, Yardley, Hay, Sedgwick, & Baker, 1999), an instrument measuring the frequency of seven separate categories of coaching behaviours. Categories of behaviours measured by the CBS-S include physical training, mental preparation, goal setting, technical skills, competition strategies, personal rapport and negative personal rapport behaviours. Results from the study identify two areas in particular that influence athlete competition anxiety; negative personal rapport behaviours and competition strategies behaviours.

Competition Strategies:

Competition strategies are behaviours designed to prepare the athlete for competition. By demonstrating an increased frequency of behaviours that the athlete feels are useful and necessary to competition, competition anxiety is reduced. This may be because the athlete feels more prepared due to the coach behaving in a way the athlete deems as being appropriate and useful. Conversely, if the coach behaves in ways that the athlete feels are irrelevant or even detrimental to his/her performance, sport anxiety would likely arise. The specific competition strategies targeted in the study are presented below.

Competition Strategies

1. Coach helps me focus on the process of performing well
2. Coach prepares me to face a variety of situations in competition
3. Coach keeps me focused in competitions
4. Coach has a consistent routine at competition
5. Coach deals with problems I may experience at competitions
6. Coach shows confidence in my ability during competitions
7. Coach ensures that facilities and equipment are organized for     competition

From the Coaching Behaviour Scale for Sport 
(Cote, Yardley, Hay, & Sedgwick 1997)

Negative Personal Rapport

Negative personal rapport behaviours refer to coaching behaviours that contribute to a negative personal relationship between coach and athlete. Negative personal rapport behaviours are presented below. The Baker, et al (1999) study indicated that as the frequency of these behaviours increased, competition anxiety also increased. This is likely due to the perceived consequences of a negative performance by the athlete. The use of mental and/or physical intimidation coupled with verbal abuse or yelling creates an increasingly stressful environment for the athlete and degrades the personal relationship between athlete and coach. This finding is significant in light of the study by d'Arripe-Longueville, Fournier, and Dubois (1998) who found that several of the behaviours classified as negative personal rapport behaviours are commonly used by coaches in sports such as judo.

Negative Personal Rapport Behaviours

1. Coach uses fear in his/her coaching methods
2. Coach yells at me when angry
3. Coach disregards my opinion
4. Coach shows favoritism towards others
5. Coach intimidates me physically
6. Coach uses power to manipulate me
7. Coach makes personal comments to me that I find upsetting
8. Coach spends more time coaching the best athletes

From the Coaching Behaviour Scale for Sport 
(Cote, Yardley, Hay, & Sedgwick 1997)

The coach plays an important role in influencing the sport anxiety felt by their athletes. When coaches recognize the influence of specific coaching behaviours that they demonstrate in increasing athlete anxiety, strategies and interventions can be created to decrease negative outcomes such as injury and dropout while increasing positive outcomes such as satisfaction and enjoyment.

References:

Baker,J.R., Cote,J., & Hawes (1999). 
The Relationship between Coaching Behaviours and Sport Anxiety in Athletes. 
Manuscript submitted for publication.

Cote,J., Yardley, J., Hay, J. Sedgwick, W. & Baker, J. (1998). An Exploratory Examination of the Coaching Behaviour Scale for Sport. AVANTE, 5(3):82-92

D'Arripe-Longueville,F., Fournier,J.F., & Dubois,A. (1998). The perceived effectiveness of interactions between expert French judo coaches and elite female athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 12(3):317-332

Smith,R.E., & Smoll, F.L. (1990).Sport performance anxiety. In H.Leitenberg (Ed), Handbook of Social and Evaluation Anxiety, New Yor: Plenum, 417-454

Joseph Baker was a research assistant with the Department of Human Movement Studies at the University of Qld and is currently completing Ph.D studies at Queen's University, Canada. Joe's research interests include the development of sport expertise and the relationship among coaching behaviours and sport outcomes.

TEN LITTLE `RAYS' OF SUNSHINE - PODIATRY
By Tony Pascoe

Australia can be justifiably proud of its achievements in such a diverse range of sporting activities over the years. With a comparatively small population, we have produced a truly remarkable number of international sporting champions. The legendary performances of these elite athletes have been responsible for a substantial increase in organised and informal sports participation throughout the nation, with the champions of tomorrow striving to emulate the feats of today's heroes.

Athletes at the elite level are understandably focused on gaining any physical or psychological edge over potential competitors. Part of this process is to surround themselves with a team of well-trained sports medicine professionals who understand the importance of early detection and management of sporting injuries. The Podiatrists role in this team involves careful monitoring of foot and leg function and regular biomechanical screenings to identify any potential sites for injury.

Fine tuning of elite athletic performance forms an integral part of any sports podiatry practice. This can include modifications of existing orthoses with subtle increases in forefoot or rearfoot wedging and extensions of the orthoses to control foot function at the propulsive phase of gait. Top covers can also be adjusted to suit specific sporting activities and footwear modified to alleviate detrimental ground reaction forces. In most cases, the progress of these athletes will require careful monitoring on a weekly basis, depending on the extent of the injury. Often, with resolution of symptoms, the original orthotic prescription can be reverted to, with the goal to maintain a "neutral" foot position.

Case History:

An elite thirty-seven year old male triathlete recently presented to my clinic with recurrent lower back and anterior thigh pain and a past history of acute plantar fasciitis in the right heel. He had explored many types of treatment over the years, with varying degrees of success. The heel pain had responded well to semi-rigid functional orthoses, although these were unable to be worn for any length of time due to an increase in quadricep soreness.

The primary treatment goal in this case was to identify any specific training errors which could be predisposing this athlete to overuse injury and implement appropriate preventative strategies. Current training was geared towards an upcoming Olympic distance triathlon and half marathon.

Extensive gait analysis using a video camera and continuous frame digital still images highlighted a weakness in the left gluteal muscle and a structural leg length discrepancy with the right leg 10mm shorter than the left. These factors, combined with a weakness in the abdominal muscles and an inverted foot type were predisposing this athlete to potential career threatening injury.

Podiatric treatment centred around the prescription of flexible orthoses which allowed adequate pronation of the rearfoot while controlling the midfoot and footwear modification to address the limb length difference. An FVA raise was inserted in the midsole of the training shoes as well as a full length raise within the shoe.

This treatment was aimed at reducing the need for excessive contraction of the left hip abductors during the swing phase of the shorter right leg which was considered a major contributing factor in causing strain and hypermobility of the L5-S1 segment.

A referral was also made for a specialist physiotherapy pilates program to address muscular imbalances and weakness in the pelvis. Other intervention included assessment of saddle height on the bike and minor adjustments to swimming technique.

This case highlights the importance of a team approach in treating complex biomechancial conditions. Fine tuning of orthoses, footwear and exercise prescription is often required when dealing with professional athletes as any minor structural imbalances can be magnified due to the shear volume of training required at the elite level. As the great thirteenth century theologian St Thomas Aquinas once wrote "Our destiny is to run to the edge of the world and beyond". This philosophy surely rings true in the modern era of elite professional sport. The sports medicine professional should be well equipped to tag along for the ride.

Tony Pascoe has a part time Podiatry practice at Sportsmed, Townsville and is also employed as a Podiatrist for Queensland Health. He is currently the secretary of Sports Medicine Australia Townsville Sub Branch and has a keen interest in sports medicine and clinical gait analysis. He is presently undertaking a graduate diploma course in Podiatry and plans to sit the Fellowship exams for the Australasian Academy of Podiatric Sports Medicine in the near future.

FINE-TUNING ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE
By Jonathan Peak

Introduction

Periodisation of training is an important component in the preparation of athletes for competition. Periodisation is the systematic organisation of a training programme into distinct phases. On a fundamental level, a training programme may be divided into pre-season, pre-competitive, competitive and off-season phases. These phases may then be divided further to focus on the development and improvement of specific performance related factors.

An approach that is commonly used in the pre-competitive phase, especially by swimmers, runners, cyclists and triathletes, is to increase their training demands above baseline for a brief period (overload) and then dramatically reduce the training volume just prior to competition. The rationale behind this approach is that athletes enter a temporary fatigued state when training hard. Then, when the training load is reduced, an adaptive response occurs whereby the athletes actually perform at a higher level than they did before the increase in training.

Tapering

The increased training demand placed on athletes during overload can only be sustained for a brief period of time. During this phase, muscular strength may be impaired and performance may decline. By tapering, or dramatically reducing training volume just prior to competition, recovery from this training-induced fatigue can occur, without the loss of the acquired central cardiovascular and peripheral muscular adaptations.

Some coaches and athletes unfamiliar with the benefits of tapering may be hesitant to integrate it into their training regimens for fear that the reduced training will take the edge off their performance. These fears are, however, unfounded as tapering has been shown to produce positive performance changes in as little as a few days. Maximal and submaximal oxygen consumption (VO2), post-exercise lactate and heart rates are unchanged after tapering. The oxygen carrying capacity of blood may actually be improved. Skeletal muscle metabolism may also be enhanced through greater glycogen storage and oxidative enzyme activity. Furthermore, tapering promotes small strength gains that could translate into improved performance.

Practical Considerations

The variables that may be altered during a taper include the structure and duration of the taper; the frequency (i.e number), volume (mileage) and intensity of training sessions.

Structure

Taper is technically referred to as an incremental, step-wise reduction in training volume. This approach is distinct from a standard reduction in daily training volume. Studies of swimmers have shown that muscular power and performance improves following tapers of 10 to 21 days duration. In runners, an incremental reduction of training volume by 80 to 90% over seven days has been shown to produce more favourable improvements in 5-km run performance and muscular power than a standard reduction of 70% of normal daily training volume. There is therefore more advantage to reducing training volume incrementally over one to three weeks compared to a standard reduction in daily training volume.

Volume

Improved endurance performance has been reported in swimmers following a 60 to 90% decrease in weekly training volume. In a study of a 7-day taper in distance runners, a 62% decrease in training volume did not improve endurance time, whereas a reduction of 90% resulted in a 22% increase. Therefore, a substantial reduction in training volume is required to allow recuperation from intense training.

Intensity

Training during taper commonly involves intervals (high intensity, short duration exercise bouts) with adequate recovery between bouts of exercise in order to maximise exercise intensity. Similarly to training volume during a taper, there is also a threshold for exercise intensity at which performance is improved. Research has revealed that performance and/or other physiological factors are only maintained or actually deteriorate during tapering schedules involving exercise intensities of 70% maximum oxygen uptake. In contrast, improved performance has been reported following training at 90% maximum oxygen uptake. Thus, in combination with an incremental reduction in volume, intense interval work promotes musculoskeletal adaptations that lead to improved athletic performance.

Frequency

A reduction in training volume can only be achieved by a decrease in the number of training sessions performed each week. One study of swimmers demonstrated negative effects on performance when training frequency was decreased by 50%. This may be due to loss of " feel" during exercise in competitive athletes. Moreover, submaximal exercise heart rates have been shown to increase following a 50% decrease in training frequency over 10 days. More moderate (i.e. 20 to 50%) reductions in training frequency have been associated with improved performance. Therefore, training frequency should be reduced by no more than 50% during a taper in order to maintain performance.

Taper Duration

Seven to 21 days has been proven as an effective duration for pre-competition taper. The effects of a taper lasting longer than 21 days have not been examined, although on the basis of the limited existing data available, a taper of longer than 21 days would maintain rather than improve performance.

Nutrition

The reduced training demands associated with tapering provide athletes with an opportunity to prepare themselves for the nutritional requirements of an upcoming competition. For endurance athletes, this may involve carbohydrate loading in the days before competition. Adequate hydration is important to performance in most athletic activities. Those athletes involved in events where weight is important such as wrestling or rowing, must be careful with diet during the taper, as the use of creatine and increased storage of glycogen in muscle is also associated with retention of water, which may cause small, but important fluctuations in weight.

Psychological Preparation

Several studies have investigated changes in sleep patterns and mood during taper. There appears to be less sleep required to recover from training during a period of tapering. It has been noted that vigour may be attenuated during a taper, but this change may be balanced with fewer negative mood states such as tension, depression, anger, fatigue and confusion and less overall total mood disturbance when compared to normal training. Athletes should be encouraged to believe that their reduced training during taper is actually helping rather than impairing their performance. The taper period would also seem to be an ideal time to practice psychological skills such as positive talk and imagery in preparation for competition.

Recovery

Tapering can not only be used in preparation for a major competitive event. As highlighted above, tapering has recuperative effects on both the body and the mind. Since it is often used after a period of heavy training, it may also be used to recover from overtraining or staleness that may arise unexpectedly during the season.

Tapering for Individual Versus Team Sports

Much of the scientific literature on tapering has focused on individual endurance rather than sprinting and power sports. However, the same principles may be easily applied to team sports. Teams are likely to play in more competitive events over a season than individual athletes. Therefore, tapering will not be possible for every game. Furthermore, the duration of the taper will most likely be shorter. However, even four to five days of reduced training volume will provide some benefit to performance, especially in those sports where there is body contact. Coaches may also use this period of "recovery" to focus on sharpening the technical skill-based aspects of performance.

Conclusion

An incremental reduction in training volume over seven to 21 days, while training intensity is maintained is an effective method for fine-tuning athletic performance. The strategy of tapering allows the body to recover from training-induced fatigue without incurring a loss of training adaptations. Furthermore, athletes can use this period of reduced training to focus on other aspects of competition, such as prepare for the nutritional demands and mental preparation.

References

Houmard, J.A. (1994). Effects of taper on swim performance. Sports Medicine, 17: 224-232.

Neary J. P., Martin, T. P., Reid, D. C., Burnham, R. & Quinney, H.A. (1992). The effects of a reduced exercise duration taper programme on performance and muscle enzymes of endurance cyclists. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 65: 30-36

Shepley, B., MacDougall, J. D., Cipriano, N., Sutton, J. R., Tarnopolsky, M. A. & Coates G. (1992). Physiological effects of tapering in highly trained athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology, 72: 706-711.

Wittig, A. F., Houmard, J. A., & Costill, D. L. (1989). Psychological effects during reduced training in distance runners. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 10: 97-100.

Jonathan Peake is a PhD student in the School of Human Movement Studies at the University of Queensland.

FINE TUNING FOR COMPETITION
By Jacqui Anderson

The goal for any athlete or sports participant is to perform the best they can on competition day. This may be to win an Olympic medal, to perform a personal best time in a fun run or to complete five games of basketball during a tournament. Optimal nutrition won't make a great athlete on its own, but it will help the athlete to perform their best, at recreational and elite levels, when it matters most.

Competition nutrition is about fine tuning your training nutrition strategies to meet the more specific needs of competition. If the athlete has followed a good training diet, this will require little change to their usual routine. Athletes need to consider the individual characteristics of their own event and tailor their competition nutrition accordingly.

Competition nutrition strategies will involve issues of preparation over the last few days, pre event eating, special practices during competition and recovery strategies post event.

Optimal preparation may not always be possible. Athletes who are involved in weekly competition schedules or tournaments may not have time for optimal carbohydrate and fluid replenishment between all events. In these circumstances, greater emphasis would be placed on nutrition during and after the event, rather than before the event. `Ideal' preparation may instead be restricted to a few priority events per year.

Nutrition Preparation Leading up to the Event

Depletion of carbohydrate stores is a major cause of fatigue during exercise. The carbohydrate and therefore `fuelling up' requirements of each athlete, will vary depending on the nature of their event.

For sporting activities lasting less than one hour, `normally full' carbohydrate stores will meet the needs of most events. Carbohydrate stores can be normalised by devoting 24-36 hours to refuelling. This requires an adequate carbohydrate intake of ~7-10g of carbohydrate per kg of body weight (ie. approximately 500-800g carbohydrate per day), together with an exercise taper (light exercise or rest) before the event. Athletes should already be consuming adequate carbohydrate if they are following an appropriate training diet.

For events lasting greater than 90minutes (endurance and ultra endurance events), `carbohydrate loading' is a popular strategy. Unfortunately, carbohydrate loading is often used inappropriately and incorrectly. In the past, athletes would participate in a hard 3-4 day training load whilst consuming a low carbohydrate diet. They would then follow this with 3-4 days of high carbohydrate eating, together with an exercise taper. The depletion phase of this regime often led athletes to feel tired, irritable and nauseous. Evidence has shown however, that athletes can `overload' glycogen stores without this difficult depletion phase. This "modified loading regime" requires an extended exercise taper of 3-4 days, whilst continuing to consume a high carbohydrate diet of at least 7-10g carbohydrate per kg of body weight. Unfortunately many athletes carbohydrate load by eating high fat rather than high carbohydrate foods such as pies, chips, oily lasagna, and creamy pasta.

Pre Event Eating & Drinking

The pre event meal has a fine tuning role in competition preparation. It may contribute to refuelling and rehydration goals. It may also serve an important psychological role for athletes, by providing confidence and comfort.

The general principles of pre event meals are;

Eat the meal about 3-4 hours prior to the event. This allows the meal enough time to empty from the stomach.

Meal should be high in carbohydrate foods. Suitable pre event meal ideas include toast with jam/honey, pancakes with honey/syrup, pasta/rice and tomato based sauce, bread roll with banana or low fat filling, fruit smoothie with milk or yogurt and fruit.

Pre event meal should also be low in fibre (to avoid gastro intestinal discomfort), low in fat (so as not to slow digestion) and moderate in protein. Those athletes too nervous to eat may prefer a liquid pre event meal such as a commercial liquid meal supplement .

It is not always practical to consume a high carbohydrate meal 2-4 hours pre competition, especially if the event is scheduled early in the morning. It is important however to consume some carbohydrate before morning endurance events. Liquid meal replacements or home made fruit smoothies are useful in these situations as they empty quickly from the stomach.

There is no need to avoid carbohydrate rich foods in the hour before exercise. Much of the evidence suggests that pre exercise carbohydrate feedings do not cause a performance disadvantage. There are a small percentage of athletes however, who fatigue rapidly as a result of carbohydrate intake an hour before exercise. Those in such a position will definitely know who they are and be able to prepare accordingly.

Include plenty of fluid to ensure adequate hydration. Consume 250-500ml of fluid before exercise. This will maximise the rate at which fluid empties from the stomach and facilitate hydration during the event.

Practice pre event eating and drinking during training. Each individual needs to experiment to find what best suits them.

Nutrition During Event

Fluid Requirements

Prevention of dehydration is one of the most important nutritional goals during exercise. Dehydration at all levels will effect performance both physically and mentally and these effects will be magnified in the heat. High levels of dehydration will also increase the risk of gastrointestinal upsets. Dehydration isn't something that athletes can train in the hope of adapting to. Nor can they gauge their need for fluid by their thirst. Once they are thirsty they are already dehydrated and their performance is already being adversely effected whether they realise it or not.

Guidelines for hydration include;

Drink small frequent amounts during the event. Actual fluid amounts will vary depending on the nature of the event, the climate and the individuals sweat (fluid) losses. Usual fluid losses can be estimated by weighing before and after a training session - 1kg weight lost is equivalent to about 1litre fluid loss.

Recommendations to consume about 150-250ml every 15-20min will account for about 80% of sweat loss for most top level athletes.

Look at maximising opportunities to drink during events. During team events ensure each player has their own drink bottle, use trainers to bring fluids onto the field during play and make use of breaks in play.

Make sure drinks are palatable. Cool rather than cold drinks are consumed in greater amounts as are flavoured drinks such as dilute cordial or sports drinks.

Carbohydrate Requirements

The need for carbohydrate during an event will depend on the duration and intensity of the event as well as the athlete's carbohydrate stores leading into the event.

For shorter events less than one hour, carbohydrate is generally not required. Cool fluids such as water are generally the preferred option, although sports drinks or diluted cordial can also be consumed.

Recent evidence has shown that carbohydrate consumption may also benefit performance during events of about 1 hour. Athletes need to experiment to see if this benefits their performance.

Events greater than 90minutes that are likely to deplete carbohydrate stores, will require ~50-60g of carbohydrate per hour. This may be in the form of fluids or solids. Sports drinks offer carbohydrate and fluid at the same time and in a combination that meets the carbohydrate and fluid needs of most events. A sports drink with a 7-8% carbohydrate concentration will provide ~50g of carbohydrate when consumed at a rate of about 700ml an hour.

In ultra distance races, solid foods in addition to fluids, may be preferred to stave off hunger.

Athletes competing in tournaments where there is inadequate time between events for adequate refuelling, may benefit from carbohydrate during events, especially in events at the end of the tournament. These athletes will also need to make the most of the breaks between events to refuel. During shorter breaks, liquid meal replacements and sports drinks may be preferred. During longer breaks, they may like more solid foods as well as liquids. Snacks suggested for pre event meals are appropriate. Practice both eating and drinking strategies during training

Recovery Nutrition Post Event

Eating immediately after exercise promotes the quickest carbohydrate storage. Given that many competition schedules have limited recovery times, rapid recovery between events is a priority.

Athletes need to consume 1-1.5g carbohydrate per kg of body weight in the first 30min post exercise. This will equate to about 50-100g of carbohydrate. Each of the following foods and fluids provide approximately 50g of carbohydrate; 600-800ml sport drink, 250-300ml of a liquid meal replacement, jam/honey sandwich, 2 breakfast bars and 2 cartons of yogurt.

Repeat this after two hours or until normal meal patterns are resumed ie. a daily intake of ~7-10g carbohydrate per kg of body weight.

Athletes also need to rehydrate quickly during recovery. Some guidelines for post event rehydration include;

Drink 1.5 times estimated fluid loss, as fluid loss continues during recovery.

Sports drinks encourage greater fluid intake and better fluid retention as well as providing carbohydrates for recovery.

Avoid caffeine and alcohol until refuelling and rehydration goals have been met. Both of these will increase fluid loss making it harder to rehydrate.

Plan ahead to ensure that appropriate snacks and fluids are available. Not all event locations have adequate nutrition facilities. As a result, athletes eat inappropriate recovery foods such as high fat pies, chips and sausage rolls.

Summary

Remember: Training is an important time in which you can experiment with different foods and fluids to see what suits you best. Don't use competition as a time to try something new. Rather, practice all nutrition strategies during training so that you can be confident of their success on the big day.

Jacqui Anderson
B.Ed., Grad Dip Sc., Mas Nut. & Diet.
APD Sports Dietitian

Fine tuning the athlete for competition.
By Miles Browning

Athletic preparation for competition involves the development of each individual's physical and mental attributes in accordance with the requirements of their chosen sport. Fine tuning the athlete for competition does not commence 3-4 weeks out from a major competition but rather from the first training session, and is the sum of all training sessions performed in the lead up to competition.

Great Performance requires a defined outcome to ensure that neither athlete, coach nor support staff lose direction. Well thought out goals with a corresponding action plan ensures each session has a defined outcome. It is imperative that all members of the athlete's support network, as well as the athlete, understand and agree with the action plan ensuring a successful preparation.

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Figure1: Interaction between athlete, coach and support network

Often, athletes are members of large squads where individual attention is difficult. Many times athletes may receive a generic taper that only varies slightly from athlete to athlete. This highlights the need for individualisation of training programmes and goals, linking them closely with individual physical and mental characteristics.

An athlete's needs are individual, and derived from physiological, psychological and musculoskeletal profiling. The complexity of these profiles will obviously vary depending on the resources available. Musculoskeletal screening and basic physiological profiling should be available to all athletes. These tests and screenings need to provide the coach with valuable information put into relevant sports specific contexts. Fine tuning the athlete requires a knowledge of where they were and where they are now. Simple tasks such as monitoring resting HR, mood state and perceived exertion will provide the coach with valuable information on how their athletes are dealing with the work load, and adapting to rest.

Figure 2: Highlights a deficiency in the left scapula control muscles (lower trapezius and serratus anterior). In addition, overactivity of upper trapezius/levator scapulae and tightness of muscles such as pectoralis minor and the internal rotators of the shoulder may co-exist. This problem was found during routine musculoskeletal screening.

While sports science journals have many articles addressing the `tapering' process, research from other disciplines such as physiotherapy is providing new strategies for improved athletic performance. Research investigating the effects of myofascial trigger points, proprioception, core stability and recovery all have implications for the fine tuning of athletes for competition

1: Myofascial trigger points [MFTP] and muscular coordination.

The presence of active myofascial trigger points, while important indicators of potential injury, cause alteration in the activation, recruitment and coordination patterns of muscle or muscle groups. This altered coordination may have an effect on the athlete's ability to accurately reproduce efficient techniques. MFTPs are often only addressed when the athlete presents to the physiotherapist with pain or dysfunction. Releasing MFTPs to ensure normal activation and coordination should be performed on a regular basis, but most importantly during the fine tuning phase of preparation. Further research on MFTP is required to determine whether there is any latency period after release and the length of time normalised movement remains during active periods. Education of the athletes to self manage these points is important if the appropriate professional is not present.

Figure 3 illustrates an athlete self releasing an infraspinatus MFTP.

2: Proprioception and changes in acuity.

An area of research that is now starting to receive more attention is proprioception, and in particular proprioception and athletic performance. Several studies have shown that under fatigue joint acuity is decreased. This has important implications for all sports performances. As part of a holistic training programme, proprioceptive retraining should be implemented to try to counter these performance decrements. This should be performed at the commencement of the programme and not left to the final stage of preparation. The optimal volume and frequency of this retraining still remains unclear, as do questions of how close to competition they should be performed. I suspect we will find that this is individually specific and will require assessment to determine starting levels. These areas have implications for neural fatigue and its affect on performance.

Figure 4: Shows Anthony West, 250cc GP Motorcyclist, performing a high level proprioceptive skill aimed at increasing fatiguability of the peripheral receptors.

3: Core Stability.

Following effective assessment of an athlete's core stability, a programme can be implemented to address weaknesses. The assessment procedure needs to view the athlete's core stability in sports specific task, not simply in the clinic. While core stability has been receiving increased attention, more research is required to determine whether this is primarily a central or peripheral mechanism. Does injury create pain inhibition responses in the abdominal and pelvic musculature leading to decreased stability? What is the frequency and volume of activation required to maintain it at its maximum? Like all fine-tuning interventions, best results are attained when core stability training occurs at the outset of a programme.

Figure 5 and 6: Show examples of exercises commonly used to increase core stability.

4: Recovery.

The principles of recovery have also gained popularity amongst coaches and athletes. The emphasis is directed toward pursuing activities that will enhance recovery from each training session. Traditionally recovery has been the least understood and practiced component of athletic preparation. Recovery activities include, appropriate food and fluid ingestion, massage and self massage, hot/cold therapy, stretching, MFTP release, hydrotherapy and relaxation techniques. These techniques are particularly useful as athletes commence their tapering phase, however it is imperative that the coaches and support staff monitor that these techniques are in fact being implemented. These techniques in conjunction with traditional tapering, aid the coach and athlete to fine tune his or her performance.

Conclusion.

Fine tuning the athlete for competition requires the following,

Fine-tuning starts with the first training session.

As competition approaches coaches and athletes should ensure that their final preparation is well planned.

The athlete's programme is individualised from the first training session. This programme includes the appropriate feedback and intervention from the relevant support network members such as Doctors, Physiotherapists, Psychologists, Exercise Scientists, Massage Therapists and the like.

Physiological, psychological and musculoskeletal profiles are developed to provide base line information about each athlete. There is ongoing communication with other members of the support network to ensure that all members are working in the same direction.

Feedback and monitoring procedures are developed to fine tune the input to the athlete.

Miles Browning has a Bachelor of Human Movement Studies and Post Graduate Diploma in Science both majoring in exercises physiology and a Bachelor of Physiotherapy. 
He is a level 2 swimming and triathlon coach and has trained World, Australian and Queensland Champions. He currently works out of the Clem Jones Centre at Carina where Miles and his support staff run a number of different sporting programmes.